Healing Systems, Biomedicine, and Social Determinants of Health
1. Healing Systems, Biomedicine, and Social Determinants of Health
What
is a healing system? What do all healing systems have
in common?
Referring to the collection of the
structures, practices, along with beliefs and therapeutic techniques, the
health system is primarily in existence to help in the diagnosis as well as
treatment of illness, to promote health. Based on Chapter 15 reading, these
systems are not only focused on physical healing but equally address the social
and emotional well-being of the community members. Norris (2025) further
clarifies that irrespective of the diverse healing systems across cultures, all
of the systems share core elements. Such elements include the theory of illness
causation, a method for diagnosing ailments, and equally the standards of the
techniques deemed effective for the treatment (Disease,
Health, and Medicine (Part Three), 2025). In essence, the
universality of the elements of the healing systems showcases the shared human
need to make sense of suffering and then act in response.
Make
a distinction between "personalistic" and "naturalistic"
healing systems and give examples of each from the chapter or lecture.
Naturalistic healing systems and
personalistic healing systems represent two distinct systems of healing that
differ in what is attributed to illness. On the one hand, personalistic healing
systems often attribute illness to disrupted relationships between people or
with other realms, including the supernatural or spiritual (Disease, Health, and Medicine (Part Three), 2025).
According to Norris (2025), such systems of healing in most cases involve the
intervention of spiritual healers or shamans who conduct rituals, offer
sacrifices or even engage other culturally prescribed acts to restore balance.
For instance, the shamanic healing practice is performed among indigenous
groups, including the drumming to appease spirits or in instances, ceremonies
involving fermented drinks. On the other hand, Chapter 15 reading explains the
naturalist systems of healing as a form of healing that tends to focus on
explaining disease symptoms and illness in terms of proximate causes. In most
cases, the naturalistic systems largely favor the use of chemicals or
mechanical interventions like herbal medicine, massage, or even acupuncture. For
instance, archaeological evidence shows that Neanderthals relied on the use of
poplar bark (a precursor to aspirin).
What
is biomedicine or medicine or "the
health care delivery system" and how has it evolved?
As one of the models of naturalistic
healing, biomedicine entails a scientifically grounded healing system focused
on diagnosing as well as treating illness through the application of empirical
observation together with technological interventions. According to Chapter 15
reading, biomedicine emerged as a dominant model in the Western world and later
gained institutional authority through developments like the Flexner Report (Disease, Health, and Medicine (Part Three), 2025).
Norris (2025) clarifies that the Flexner Report played a crucial role in
restructuring medical education in the early 20th century to align
with the German clinical model. Through the approach of standardizing training,
licensing along with regulations, biomedicine eventually professionalized
healthcare to grant physicians societal trust and authority. As biomedicine
continues to advance, the focus has shifted to not only involve curative
practices but equally incorporate preventive and palliative care.
What is the relationship
between the social determinants of health and biomedicine?
Social
determinants represent social aspects that primarily determine the
effectiveness of biomedicine interventions and the overall health of an
individual. As per Chapter 15 reading, social determinants of health encompass
the cultural, economic as well as the political and environmental conditions
that directly or indirectly influence and individual’s health outcomes. Such
factors include education, income, or even one’s gender. Whereas the focus of
biomedicine is to diagnose and treat diseases, failure to address such issues
limits the efficacy of biomedicine interventions (Disease,
Health, and Medicine (Part Three), 2025). Norris (2025) argues
that disparities witnessed in health, like the higher infant mortality among
Black babies compared to their white counterparts, showcase how biomedical
interventions alone are not adequate to achieve a healthy society. As such, an
effective healthcare system should involve interventions that take into consideration
the need to address social determinants whenever applying biomedical
interventions.
2. Definitions
and Social Construction of Disease
This
question has lots of arms and legs. Begin by defining health and medicine and
distinguishing them. Then, explain how the chapter defines disease, illness, and sickness.
Representing a state of complete
physical, mental as well social well-being, health is a concept used to describe
as a state in which a person does not suffer any disease or any other
discomfort. As per Chapter 15 reading, disease is a concept used to refer to a
physiological dysfunction that can be identified and treated. On the other
hand, illness is a term used to describe the subjective experiences of
suffering and symptoms that prompt a need for healthcare (Disease, Health, and Medicine (Part One), 2025).
For the case of sickness, Norris (2025) defines it as a social role and
expectations assigned to individuals who are ill or diseased. Whereas disease
is often clinical and biological, illness is emotional and experiential, while
on the other hand, sickness is culturally and socially constructed.
Were
anatomically modern Homo sapiens the first species to leave evidence of showing
empathy and caring for others?
Modern Homo sapiens although initially
thought to be the first species to leave evidence of the showing empathy and
caring for others, archaeological findings suggests that such human ancestors
like Neanderthal equally had similar practices. Based on Chapter 15 reading, archaeological
evidence from the Neanderthal remains particularly Shanidar 1, revealed healed
injuries and signs of long-term care. Such long-term care included pre-chewed
food for those without teeth. In Norris’s (2025) view, such findings show that
Neanderthals equally had the ability to perceive and respond accordingly to the
emotional states of others. Therefore, modern homo sapiens were not the first
species to exhibit compassion for others of similar species.
What are the social
determinants of health? Can diseases be socially constructed?
Social
determinants of health represent the cultural, economic as well as the
political conditions that either directly or indirectly influence health
outcomes. Such conditions mainly include an individual’s class, race, and in
other cases, environmental factors, gender along with social policies (Disease, Health, and Medicine (Part One), 2025).
According to Norris’s (2025) arguments, social determinants of health often shape
who gets sick, who has access to care, and in other instances determine how the
diseases are perceived. Norris further explains that diseases are socially
constructed which implies that some of the behaviors that were initially
perceived as personal failings are in current biomedical health system defined
as medical issues calling for medical treatment. As such, illness is not solely
biological but equally reflects societal norms and structures that define a
state of being healthy or being ill.
3. Epidemiological
Transitions
What
is an epidemiological transition? In your answer, use examples from the
textbook or lecture to describe the key characteristics of the epidemiological
transitions (and the accompanying demographic changes) our species has
experienced since the dawn of behaviorally and anatomically modern Homo
sapiens.
Representing the change through time
in the primary disease and cause of death within a population, the epidemiological
transition is often associated with changes in the social organization,
subsistence strategies along with the advancement in technology. Mainly, there
have been three major epidemiological transitions since the emergence of the
anatomically and behaviorally modern Homo sapiens. Based on Chapter 15 reading,
the first transition largely occurred with the Neolithic Revolution that took
place approximately 12,000 years ago. Within this period, humans began
practicing agriculture and domesticating animals, which led to increased
human-animal contact. Norris (2025) clarifies that it was such an increased
interaction that made the zoonotic diseases become endemic. Following the first
epidemiological transition was the transition that took place with urbanization
and industrialization. At this transition, the sedentary lifestyle and
processed diets led to a rise in chronic diseases like heart disease and cancer
(Disease, Health, and Medicine
(Part Two), 2025). Norris further argues that the third and
current transition is largely shaped by globalization, environmental
degradation along with growing inequalities. In Norris’s view, such aspects
have eventually led to a resurgence of infectious diseases like COVID-19,
HIV/AIDS, along Ebola. Notably, the epidemiological transition throughout human
history stands out as a crucial indication that human health is directly
affected by biological aspects, environmental factors as well as cultural
values.
References
Norris,
W.B. (2025). Chapter 15: Disease, Health, and Healing file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/Disease%20Health%20and%20Medicine%20unit%2013.pdf
Disease, Health, and Medicine (Part One). (2025). Retrieved June 24, 2025, from https://hfc.yuja.com/V/Video?v=13264313&node=57566186&a=178947846
Disease, Health, and Medicine (Part Three). (2025). Retrieved June 24, 2025, from https://hfc.yuja.com/V/Video?v=13264404&node=57566432&a=2050908
Disease, Health, and Medicine (Part Two). (2025). Retrieved June 24, 2025, from https://hfc.yuja.com/V/Video?v=13264374&node=57566342&a=103957254
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